The Language And Power English Language Essay

The Language And Power English Language Essay Language is a very significant thing in our life. Therefore, it can be either empowering or disempowering relying on how its used and who is using it? The reason of my paper is to discover the diverse dimensions of the relations of power and language. First, I shall talk about two different types of power of the language. Then, I shall quote, discuss, and illustrate a piece of an interview that concentrates upon how unequal power practiced by unequal encounters has a correlation with the use of the language. Moreover, I shall distinguish between three types of constraints that appeared through discourse. Then, I shall analyze and exemplify a small text from the media to show how the uses of vocabulary, grammar, and the textual structures have a significant role as a hidden power in discourse. Additionally, I shall analyze a short extract to show how social struggle in discourse occurs. Finally, I shall give my conclusion. According to Norman Fairclough the power of the language can either appear overtly or covertly and categorized into two types: power in discourse and power behind discourse. Power in discourse is found where relations of power are applied and performed in face-to-face spoken discourse, power in cross-cultural discourse in which contributors belong to various ethnic groups, and the hidden power which is located in the discourse of the mass media. Power behind discourse works with how arrangements of discourse as dimensions of the social orders of social institutions or societies are themselves formed and composed by relations of power. (Fairclough, Ch. 3, p. 36) Let us start our discussion with a type of power in discourse in terms of face to face discourse where the encounters have unequal power. Text 1 is an extract from an interview transcript of Larry King with Chris Brown, Browns attorney (Mark Geragos), and Browns mother (Joyce Hawkins). Some indicative keys to help the reader in reading the script such as, a dot (.) means a short cease, three dots (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) mean longer cease, and the two square brackets are overlapping and interruption. We need to know that powerful participants have several devices, which can be used in order to practice a control over less powerful participants such as, interruption, enforcing explicitness, controlling topic, formulation, and turn taking. (Fairclough, Ch. 5, pp. 112-113, Text 1 in appendix) In text 1 we can see how King practices control and power over Brown, his attorney, and his mother. He controls the topic, and he is in a position that allows him to practice his power through posing intricate and critical questions. King interrupts Brown five times- in (11), (29), (35), (58), and (69) and one time he interrupts Hawkins in (45). King here is not doing all these interruptions just because he wants to. However, he is enforcing explicitness to make Browns meaning clear by asking things like in (3), (4), (5), and (6). Also, he overlaps and interrupts Brown in order to control his statement and to make sure that his answer is truthful and unambiguous because King knows that Brown has amnesia, for example, in (28) and (29). (Fairclough, Ch. 3, p. 38 Text 1 in appendix) Furthermore, King exercises his power even over Browns attorney; in (11) (what did you pleadà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ explain, quickly, Mark, what he pled guilty to.) It is clear that he has full control over the situation and over everybody involved in the discourse which we notice it in the way the turn taken is managed. King has the authority to select the next speaker. In conversation between unequal participants, turn-taken rights are unequal too. (Fairclough, Ch. 5, p. 112 Text 1 in appendix) Moreover, we can see the way in which King is overtly repeating Browns answers in (4), and (5) (possibly) and in (25) and (27) (its fair) as if he is asking him are you sure? Also, it seems to be that King is evaluating the time that Brown and his mother (Hawkins) went through such as in (3) and (19) (this had to be the worst period of your life), (especially with all this pain youve had in your life). Another point is that Brown and Hawkins are put in the spot in the series of questions of turns (43), (45), (47), (49), (53), (55), (57), (68), (70), (72), and (74). The questions compose a tactically ordered series which makes Brown and his mother hesitate in their answers, which associated with many longer pauses in (44), (46), (48), (56), (58), (71), (73), and (75). (Fairclough, Ch. 3, p. 38 Text 1 in appendix) In addition, we notice that King is using an excessive amount of interrogative sentences. Some of the questions were formed grammatically negative such as in (33) (The sentencing judge, as I understand it, has not lifted a protective order the court imposed on you in connection with Rihanna. That means you cant be with her?), (39) (But you cannot go together?) and (73) (No, well, lets say could you conceive of that down the road?) this type of questions makes Brown look guilty, looser and deserve what had happed to him. (Fairclough, Ch. 3, p. 38 Text 1 in appendix) Now, let us consider some constrains that donate specific linguistic forms. According to Fairclough, text 1 shows three types of constrains in: contents, relations, and subjects. In terms of contents (topic), Brown is accused of beating his fiancà © Rihanna, and he is trying to clear himself in front of King and the rest the world, also his mother insists that Brown has never been an aggressive individual and his attorney trying to explain to King the status of Brown at this moment. We can see how the formality of the situation applies a specific kind of attitudes and particular types of vocabulary. Also, in terms of relation, we can see the social relation between the encounters is very formal; King represents a professional relation to his guest, Nevertheless, Brown is the son of Mrs. Hawkins, so their relation ship is intimate (mother and son). Furthermore, in terms of subject position, King occupies a reporter position who is exercising his authority over Brown, Hawkins, and Geragos, Brown is accuser, and Geragos is an attorney. Notice how King has the right to ask questions, whereas, his guests have only obligation to comply and answer. As well, we can see that these constraints received from the conventions of the discourse type which is being derived from. Consequently, we come to say that power in discourse is to do with powerful participants controlling and constraining the contribution of non-powerful participants, and can indirectly constrain them by selecting the discourse type. (Fairclough, Ch. 3, p. 39 Text 1 in appendix) Now, I shall consider another type of power in discourse. It is the hidden power in mass media. This kind of discourse engages members who are separated in place and time. Actually, mass-media discourse has a very neat nature. Its power relation is usually covert and engages hidden relations of power. The main different thing between face-to-face discourse and media discourse is the one-sidedness. In media discourse, there is a strong separation between producers and interpreters- maybe because media product has the nature of a commodity, between producers and consumers. Medias text is designed for mass audiences, which mean for everybody because it is hard for the writer to specify his audience. Therefore, media discourse has created into it a subject position for an ideal subject. (Fairclough, Ch. 3, p. 41) The journalist in text 2 exercises power over readers in that he has full rights and can therefore, decide what is contained and omitted, how events are appeared, and even the subject positions of their spectators. Look at the interrogative question in (A) (Does Chris Brown have amnesia?); the writer is engaging and positioning his readers in a certain way to answer the question (yes or no). Furthermore, the title is in bold to pull all readers attention to the more important sentence. The use of clear agent in the first sentence (A) makes us focus on Brown himself and his incident. In the second part of the text (B), the writer omitted purposely the name of Browns ex-fiancà © (Rihanna) to avoid dragging the audience attention. Moreover, the use of the negative grammatical form in (B) (No, I dont. Its like, its crazy to me) and in (C) (Im in shock, thats not who I am as a person. And thats not who I pride myself on being), shows the readers that Brown is not guilty, and he is not ha ppy about what he did due to his sickness. We can see how the writer is manipulating his audiences, he is exercising his hidden power by not telling directly that Brown is innocent, but he is covertly trying to convey his message by controlling his audience to make them come to a specific conclusion (Brown is innocent). (Fairclough, Ch. 5, pp. 103-5 Text 2 in appendix) Furthermore, we notice that the representation of Brown is another form of constraint on contents such, representations cumulatively stereotype famous RB singer and more generally the singer of favored public figures, and so constrain the meanings people attach to them. Once we read the article, we dont find that Brown obviously said to be innocent, and needs our sympathy. The process relies totally on an ideal readers ability to deduce that from the list of his answer. Brown expresses his shock of what happed, he cant remember what actually happen, he is concerned for his career, he is trying to rescue his reputation, he is trying to stimulate the readers sympathy and forgiveness, he wants his audience to feel pity for him. Nevertheless, this indicates that what are being constrained are not only contents but also subjects: the process presumes an ideal reader who will certainly make the right deduction from the list, in another meaning to have the right idea about who Brown is. (Fa irclough, Ch. 3, pp. 44-5 Text 2 in appendix) We have to know that not all photographs have the same effect. Journalists usually are clever. They make an ideal choice of a photograph that gives one image of a scene or a person from many likely images. The selection is very significant because different images convey different meanings. In the example (D), we can see our attention is drawn particularly by Browns eyes and facial expression; he is looking in the right side with a broken hart and sad face. Notice the clear function of the caption. It leads us to feel sorry, pity, and sympathy with him. (Fairclough, Ch. 3, p. 45 Text 2 in appendix) Medias texts have a particular way of positioning and directing the reader towards the side that they like. The hidden power of the media text can be the journalist, the editor, or other people whom we dont know, and it is always manipulative and covert. (Fairclough, Ch. 3, pp. 46) Our last text 3 is concerned with social struggle in the discourse. Power in discourse or behind discourse is not enduring and undisputed characteristic of any individual or social grouping. Quite the opposite, those who practice power at a specific instant, have to continually reemphasize their power and authority, and those who dont have power are constantly likely to seek for power. This is a fact, whether at the level of the specific situation, or in terms of a social institution, or in terms of a whole society. According to Fairclough power at all these levels is won, exercised, sustained, and lost during social struggle. (Fairclough, Ch. 2 3, pp. 28, 57) Let us illustrate text (3) which is a good example where a struggle is overt and clear. It is an investigation situation where the interrogator is questioning the pensioner about his involvement in a crime. There are numerous ways in which (P) practices more supremacy over the discourse than anyone might imagine, goes beyond his discoursal rights and does not complete his obligations. Firstly, he challenges (I)s questions three times (turn 2, 4, and 6) rather than answering them immediately. Secondly, in (2 and 6) (P) asks questions that are not related at all to the situation and go beyond it, conversely, (I) is not answering (P), but he is asking him another question in order to keep him in the track. Lastly, it seems that (P) shows no sign of cooperation. He appears to treat the investigator as a peer, and act as if the interrogation is a normal conversation (2, 4, and 6), nevertheless, (I) success in maintaining a lot of control over the situation. While the struggle at the situa tional level is over power in discourse, struggle at the other levels may also be over power behind discourse. (Fairclough, Ch. 3, pp. 57-9 Text 3 in appendix) To sum up, I think this discussion was really useful and productive. At my work, I usually practice my power through the use of language because it can be used as a perfect instrument for practicing a power over others. For example, my pose exercises his power over me and I exercise my power over other employers who are under my authority. Accordingly, as I said at the opening of this essay language can either be empowering or disempowering depending on various reasons. It is wonderful what language can do. Appendix Text 1 Chris Brown appeared on Larry King with his attorney and his mother, Joyce Hawkins, who insists that Brown has never been a violent person. KING: Its Chris Brown exclusive, right now next, on LARRY KING LIVE. Good evening. With us tonight on LARRY KING LIVE are Chris Brown; his mother, Joyce Hawkins; and his attorney, Mark Geragos. Chris entered a guilty plea on June 22nd a deal that allowed him to avoid jail time. He pled guilty to felony assault after a widely publicized incident with his girlfriend, Rihanna. A second felony charge, making criminal threats, was dropped. And Chris was sentenced to five years probation and six months of community labor. We thank you all for coming. How are you doing? BROWN: Im good. Thank you. KING: This had to be the worst period of your life. BROWN: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.Possibly, yes. KING: Possibly BROWN: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Yes. KING: Are things calm for you now? Are you into it? BROWN: I think its more a relief now that everything is kind of all said and done as far as like what I have to do and emà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦whats going on. I think its no more .. no more media frenzy for them to kind of blow out of proportion anymore. KING: So youre glad its over? BROWN: Yes. KING: What did you plead explain, quickly, Mark, what he pled guilty to. MARK GERAGOS, DEFENSE ATTORNEY: Assault, basically, was what it is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ a felony assault charge; sentenced to five years of probation; as you said, 180 days of what Judge Schnegg calls community labor. And he has to undergo a domestic violence program for one year. KING: And five years means youve got to be like perfect GERAGOS: It means he walks the straight and narrow for five years. And as Judge Schnegg said in court yesterday, shesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. shes a tough task master, but shes fair. KING: Were taping this a week before it airs, so its airing on this night, but that was yesterday, meaning last Tuesday. GERAGOS: That was. KING: And before we get into the meat of everything, Chris, how have you handled all this, Joyce? JOYCE HAWKINS, CHRIS BROWNS MOTHER: Its probably the most painful time of my entire life. Its been hard, really hard, seeing him going through the pain and everything that hes gone through, dealing with the media and dealing with the situation. Its been really hard. KING: Especially with all the pain youve had in your life. HAWKINS: Yes, along with that. KING: Which well get to later. But the labor-oriented service, what à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. what does it mean you have to do, Chris? This is back in Virginia, right? BROWN: Yes, back in Virginia. KING: What do you have to do? BROWN: I think they want me to do anythingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. anything from picking up trash on the side of the street, washing cars, graffiti removal, I mean anyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.anything. But its the law, so Im willing to do whatever they want me to do. KING: Is it fair? BROWN: To me, possibly everything comes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. everything comes with consequences. So I feel like definitely it is. And I have no misjudgment on what the judge has has has given me. So Im willing to do anything they ask. KING: So you feel its à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ its fair? BROWN: Yes. KING: Yes. The judge was very specific. She wanted labor involved in the punishment. BROWN: Yes. KING: What did that mean to you when she said that, hard work? BROWN: Hard work, yes, definitely. And Im a very hard worker, so that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ thats kind of .. I wouldnt say second nature, but its definitely something that Im willing to to do. As far as the actual what I have to do, I felt personally that, as far as not saying as as a celebrity, because I dont exclude myself and try to become like, oh, Im a celebrity so I shouldnt be punished. But I feel like with with what Im capable of doing as far as influencing people, influencing kids, the youth, I can do a lot more to help the community other than picking up trash. But I dont Im not saying picking up trash is something wrong. Im willing to do it. But Im just saying, I know I can do a lot more, which I intend to do, aside from our community service. KING: The sentencing judge, as I understand it, has not lifted a protective order the court imposed on you in connection with Rihanna. That means you cant be with her? BROWN: No, I cant. I cant communicate. Nothing. KING: Do you think thats fair? BROWN: Its kind of hard, definitely, because being her being my friend for so long and us being being that close of a friend, its kind of like, wow, like, not being able to see or talk to that person is kind of kind of difficult. And but its its also hard because were both in the same industry. We do we go to the same events. We KING: That you can do, right? BROWN: Yes, I can go to the same event. We havent (INAUDIBLE) KING: But you cannot go together? BROWN: Not not at all. We have to be like 10 yards away from each other, but I just feel like its harder, because were always in the same vicinity, and it leaves more because we have the protection order, it leaves more room for error. It leaves more room for people to start rumors and start start more stuff, like, oh, theyre together. Theyre not supposed to be together. And and it just kind of leaves more room for for problems. KING: You have to be real careful, right, Mark? GERAGOS: Yes, more than careful. I mean there was an incident a supposed incident in New York where the two of them unbeknownst to each other because they dont talk to each other are rumored to be at the same hotel. So before before we even verify it, I just tell him, move. So, you know, its almost Ive kiddingly joked, we almost have to put GPS chips into the two of them to figure out where the other one is at all times. KING: How well do you know Rihanna, Joyce? HAWKINS: Ive known Rihanna for four or five years. And KING: Do you like her? HAWKINS: erà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I like her, yes. KING: When the incident happened, how did it hit you? HAWKINS: Like I said, emà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I was devastated. I was really upset about the situation and really felt reallyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦erà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦em.. bad about this whole situation really KING: Were you shocked? HAWKINS: Very shocked. Very shocked. KING: Well get into all of it. During the sentencing, the judge said she was not immune from the chatter on the airwaves about meetings between you and Rihanna. BROWN: Yes. KING: Now, obviously, it upset her, right? BROWN: Yes. KING: Do you understand that part? BROWN: Yes, I understand that totally. Of course, like, the media, like Im not saying this media but the media, as far as like the the the immature media, you know KING: Immature media? BROWN: The immature media. I feel like its high school sometimes, how people just pride theirself on personal business. But like I feel like they they spun a lot of the stuff out of control, as far as with with the judge, with a lot of things, because everybody reads the newspapers. Everybody reads the blogs. Everybody reads stuff like thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.erà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦emà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦So its easily influenced when theres something thats already stated like it happened. KING: But what happened happened. BROWN: Yes. KING: And you were involved in what happened BROWN: Yes. KING: So you have to accept the consequences. BROWN: Definitely. GERAGOS: You know, the difference in this case and Ive been through a number of cases where there was media attention the difference in this case is the aftermath of the incident, where there was repeatedly just false stuff that would be printed. And major newspapers would put out things theyre they spent the weekend together here or they spent the weekend together there, which was just false. They werent even at one point, they said the two of them had spent the night together in one location. She wasnt even in the country. KING: Simply put, when was the last time you had contact with her? BROWN: Its been a couple months, because I think thats when the actual stay away order was in effect. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ erà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦So from there, we havent had contact at all. KING: Do you love her? BROWN: Definitely. KING: In love with her? BROWN: erà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦em..Definitely. KING: Would you spend a lifetime with her? BROWN: Would I spend a lifetime well, erà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I mean, emà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Im 20, so KING: No, well, lets say could you conceive of that down the road? BROWN: em.. I yes. KING: Well be right back with Chris Brown, Joyce Hawkins and Mark Geragos. Dont go away. Text 2 Media Text Does Chris Brown have amnesia? That sure looks like it when the RB singer spoke for the first time in public about the incident that rocked the entertainment world a few months ago When asked whether he remembers beating up his ex-girlfriend, Brown replies: No, I dont. Its like, its crazy to me. Im like, wow. Brown adds, When I look at the police reports or I hear about the police reports, I dont know what to think. I just dont know what to think. Its just like, wow. I just look at it like, wow, Im in shock, cause first of all, thats not who I am as a person. And thats not who I pride myself on being. (D) Text (3) Transcript from the series Criminal Minds was shown on Friday 1st January 2010, at 21:30, on MBC Action. It was an investigation between a prisoner and investigator: The investigator is showing some pictures for several dead girls. (I): Investigator: Why did you kill these girls? (P): Prisoner: Would you like to see a trick? (I): Investigator: How many girls did you kill? (P): Prisoner: pick a card. (I): Investigator: Where did you bury them? (P): Prisoner: Do you ever smile? It is hard to trust a person who does not smile.

Case Analysis_The University Art Museum Essay

Executive Summary This report was commissioned as a case analysis to examine why the last two directors of the University Art Museum were seemingly at odds with the university and failed in their mission to lead the museum into the future. Further it provides prospective on how to move the museum into the future through successful management. Case Analysis The University Art Museum was a generous gift donated by the son of the university’s first president, who was also a campus alumnus. The university took great pride in the museum and even highlighted the museum’s photo on campus brochures and catalogs for years. However, in recent years university was not exactly pleased with the direction the museum was headed under either of its most recent two directors. It became abundantly clear that the directors had a different vision for the museum than did the university faculty. There was so much tension amongst parties that the previous director had â€Å"sharply attacked the faculty as â€Å"elitist† and snobbish† and as believing that â€Å"art belongs to the rich,† (Daft, 2013). What we gather from the case for analysis is that university did not clearly outline the direction of the museum, provide a mission statement, or make any formal written policy about how to run the museum or move the museum into the future. We also gather that prior to 1998 the museum ran just fine without the university needing any formalities. This could partially equate to the fact that the original director and his successor were previous students of the university. As students of the university they may have already had a pretty good idea of how the university operated. Additionally, the original director was also the founder of the museum. Whatever the case may be it wasn’t until the university began hiring outside the university that there seemed to be a major disconnect. At this point it is clear that there are some design essentials that need to be incorporated before hiring another director. With that being said, organizations exist for a purpose and that purpose needs to be clearly defined. The university faculty should first decide the organization’s strategic intent which includes a clear and  specific mission, a vision, and the principles of the university. Additional aspects of strategic intent are competitive advantage and core competence. In knowing the competitive advantage of the museum and the core competence, the faculty will be better positioned to build a strategy. Once the mission and goals are established the university should be able to set clear operating goals. Additionally, the faculty members need to take a long look at what they consider the failures of the previous two directors and see how their attempts to move the university into the future can be adjusted to fit the needs of the university, the needs of the community and lastly, paint the university in a better light, one not viewed as â€Å"elitist† or â€Å"snobbish†. Simply returning the university to its previous state could prove to be detrimental. Lastly, the university needs to have some formal measure in place to assess effectiveness of the strategies set forth. Simply put, just because the faculty is happy with the direction the museum is headed, doesn’t make it a successful venture. Conclusion  In conclusion, it is clear why the previous two directors have failed to be successful in fulfilling the mission of the university. Quite simply, there was no mission defined, no goals, no formal policies or principles, and no vision. If any director is to be successful the university needs to take the appropriate measures in spearheading that success. First and foremost, a mission statement must be formulated. The organization needs to understand the competitive advantage and core competence of the museum and built a suitable strategy or strategies around these values. Lastly, there needs to be a formal measure in place to assess the effectiveness. Once the university has taken the necessary steps to lead the museum in the direction it wants for the future, they will be far more successful in finding the right director for the job. Most importantly, the director will do a much better job of meeting the goals of the university faculty. References Daft. R. L. (2013). Organization Theory & Design. Mason, OH: South-Western, Cengage Learning.

Keynesian Economics Essay

The application of the Keynesian theory of economics has been a long standing controversy between the conservatives and the liberal factions of the American political, social, and economic fronts. Despite the controversy, Keynesianism has evidently influenced economic policies in the United States since the Second World War. This essay explains the impact of Keynesian Economics on fiscal policy in the United States. First, the author will briefly detail the provisions of the Keynesian economic theory. Some examples of recent policy actions that represent attempts at using Keynesian principles in the US are also given. Keynesian theory of economics describe a normal economy as one marked with high employment levels and normal spending by individuals in the society, a factor which leads to continuous circulation of money in the economic (Mankiw). According to him, shaking the confidence of the consumers to the economy forces them to save their income as a way of weathering the economic hardship. Failed flow of consumer money into the economy prompts the supplies to hoard their money (Mankiw). This causes a vicious circle where everybody is not willing to spend their money, thus risking an economic recession. In order to resolve this economic crisis, Keynesian Economics calls for the central bank to engage in expanding and contracting money supply in the market (Rigdon, et al 67). According Keynes, when the government pumps more bills to the people, their confidence in the economy is boosted, forcing them to increasing their expenditure, thus reinstating the normal circular flow of money in the economy. This theory has found its widespread use in controlling the American economy. This is first evident in the common practice by the Federal Reserve Bank of buying government debt from commercial banks which increases the amount of money these banks can lend (Bardes, Shelley, and Schmidt 71). Another impact of the Keynesian Economics in America is the move by the government to reduce credit requirements for commercial banks. This allows the banks to generate more money from its operations. Still, the Federal Reserve Bank can reduce it lending rates to commercial banks thus allowing them to lend more money (Bardes, Shelley, and Schmidt 76). All these serve to increase the amount of money in commercial banks, a factor which enhancing its lending capacity. On the other hand, to contract the flow of money in the economy, the Federal Reserve Bank will increase its selling of US debt, increase credit requirement, and lending rates to commercial banks (Bardes, Shelley, and Schmidt 104). This limits the lending ability by commercial banks. This is what is commonly referred to as countercyclical policies as they contradict the direction of the business system to ensure a balance of the economy. Available literature indicates that through contracting and expanding of money supply by the Federal Reserve Bank, the American economy has managed to survive an economic depression of same magnitude as the Great Depression of the 1930s (Rigdon, et al 67). This information claim that America has sailed through nine recessions during the twentieth century without any going to a depression. Such recessions include those of 1960-61, 1973-75, 1980-83, and 1990-92. Thus, economic control in the American nation employs the Keynesian Economic theory as the government gives the Federal Reserve Board the mandate to balance the economy through the discretionary monetary policy (Rigdon, et al 89). There are a number of examples of recent policy actions by the American government that represent attempts at using Keynesian principles. The Obama administration entered offices in the midst of an economic recession that had seen an increase in the rate of unemployment among the Americans to an estimated 8%. In a move to restore the economy, the government engaged in pumping significant amount taxpayer money. This move was aimed at limiting the level of unemployment to below 8% (Bardes, Shelley, and Schmidt 123). Such was in line with the Keynesian economic theory which claims that in a recession crisis, the government should expand money supply to enhance consumer confidence in the economy, thus reestablish the cyclic flow of money into the economic. However, this economic stimulus did less than to worsen the unemployment rates in the nation to about 10% by January 2009 (Rigdon, et al 71). The government has nevertheless defended this move claiming that the stimulus was too small to significantly revive the deep recession that had impacted on the American economy. Due to this reason, the Obama administration seeks approval for a second economic stimulus. The failure of this fiscal policy has been blamed for taking for granted the dilemma between government spending and reduction of tax as viable approaches to economic recovery. Critics of increased government spending in a short time it ineffective given the complex process of approval and reliable implementation compared to tax reduction. In conclusion, Keynesian economics has greatly influenced fiscal policy actions in the US since after the second. This is the model that is thanked by many for the economic prosperity since the postwar era. However, employing this theory in developing a fiscal policy should be based on a clear analysis of the most viable approach of combination of approaches to take. Such include; increasing government spending, reducing tax, and/or reducing prime lending rates. Works cited Bardes, Barbara, Shelley, Mack, & Schmidt, Steffen. American Government and Politics Today, 2008, Brief Edition. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2009. Mankiw, Gregory. â€Å"The Reincarnation of Keynesian Economics. † The Reincarnation of Keynesian Economics. Oct. 1991. 12 Aug. 2010. Rigdon, Susan, et al. Understanding American Government. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2009.

How To Use Suffixes in Spanish

One sure-fire way to boost your Spanish vocabulary is to take the words you already know and learn how to apply suffixes to them. What Are Suffixes? Suffixes are simply word endings that can be used to modify a words meaning. We use suffixes  in English all the time, and nearly all of them that we use in English have a Spanish equivalent. But Spanish has an even wider variety, and their usage isnt always as obvious as it would be in English. Take a common word like manteca, for example. Thats the word for lard, a much-used cooking ingredient in some Spanish-speaking countries. Add the ending -illa, a common ending, and it becomes mantequilla, or butter. Add the ending -ero, and it becomes mantequero, which can mean either a dairyman or a butter dish. Add the ending -ada, and it becomes mantecada, or buttered toast. Add -ado, and it becomes mantecado, or french ice cream. Unfortunately, it isnt always possible to figure out what a word means simply by knowing the root word and the suffixes. But the suffixes may give enough clues that in context you can make an educated guess. For the Spanish student, suffixes can roughly be classified as diminutives, augmentatives, pejoratives, English cognates, and miscellaneous. And one, the adverbial suffix, is in a class of its own. The Adverbial Suffix Probably the most common Spanish suffix is -mente, which is usually added to the feminine singular form of adjectives to turn them into adverbs, just as we add -ly in English. Thus simplemente is simply, carià ±osamente is lovingly, rà ¡pidamente is quickly, and so on. Diminutives These suffixes are extremely common and are used to make a word refer to something smaller, either literally or figuratively as in a form of endearment. Thus, un gato is a cat, but un gatito is a kitten. In English we sometimes do the same thing by adding -y. The most common diminutive is -ito (or its feminine equivalent, -ita), sometimes expanded to -cito or, less commonly, -illo or even -zuelo. You can add one of these endings to many nouns and adjectives to arrive at a diminutive form. Examples: perrito (doggy)hermanito (little brother)papelito (slip of paper) Augmentatives Augmentatives are the opposite of diminutives and arent used as much. Augmentative endings include -ote, -ota, -à ³n, -ona, -azo, and -aza. For examples, un arbolote is a large tree, and un hombrà ³n is a big or tough dude. Just as the diminutives sometimes are used to denote an endearing quality, the augmentatives can be used to convey a negative connotation. Whereas un perrito may be a cute puppy, un perrazo could be a big scary dog. One augmentative, -à ­simo, and its feminine and plural forms are used with adjectives to form a superlative. Bill Gates isnt just rich, hes riquà ­simo. Pejoratives Pejoratives are added to words to indicate contempt or some form of undesirability. They include -aco, -aca, -acho, -acha, -ajo, -aja, -ote, -ota, -ucho, and -ucha. The precise translation often depends on the context. Examples include casucha, a house thats falling apart, and ricacho, referring to a person who is rich in some undesirable way, such as arrogant. English Cognates These suffixes are ones that are similar to suffixes in English and have a similar meaning. Nearly all of them have come to both languages by way of Greek or Latin. Most have an abstract meaning, or are used to change one part of speech into another. Here are some of the more commonly used cognates along with an example of each: -aje — -age — kilometraje (like mileage, but in kilometers)-ancia — -ancy — discrepancia (discrepancy)-arquà ­a — -archy — monarquà ­a (monarchy)-à ¡tico — -atic — lunà ¡tico (lunatic)-ble — -ble — manejable (manageable)-cida, cidio — -cide — insecticida (insecticide)-cià ³n — -tion — agravacià ³n (aggravation)-cracia — -cracy — democracia (democracy)-crata — -crat — burà ³crata (bureaucrat)-dad — -ity — pomposidad (pomposity)-esa, -iz, -isa — -ess — actriz (actress)-fico, -fica — -fic — horrà ­fico (horrific)-filo, -filia — -file — biblià ³filo (bibliophile)-fobia — -phobia — claustrofobia (claustrophobia)-fono — -phone — telà ©fono (telephone)-icio, -icia — -ice — avaricia (avarice)-ificar — -ify — dignificar (to dignify)-ismo — -i sm — budismo (Buddhism)-dad — -ity — pomposidad (pomposity)-ista — -ist — dentista (dentist)-itis — -itis — flebitis (phlebitis)-izo — -ish — rojizo (reddish)-or, -ora — -er — pintor (painter)-osa, -oso — -ous — maravilloso (marvelous)-tud — -tude — latitud (latitude) Miscellaneous Suffixes Finally, there are suffixes that dont have a clear English equivalent. Here are some of the common ones along with an explanation of their meanings and an example of each: -ada — similar to English suffix -ful or -load — cucharada, spoonful (from cuchara, spoon)-ado, -ido — can indicate similarity to root word — dolorido, painful-al — indicates a tree or grove — manzanal, apple tree-anza — makes noun forms of some verbs — enseà ±anza, education-ario — indicates profession or place — bibliotecario, librarian-azo — a blow of the object of the root word — estacazo, a hit with a stick (from estaca, stake)-dero — indicates instrument, means, or capacity — lavandero, laundry (from lavar, to clean)-dor, -dora — indicates agent, machine or place; sometimes similar to -er — jugador, player; comedor, diner; calculadora, calculator-dura — indicates the effect of an action — picadura, puncture (from picar, to pick)-ear — common verb ending, often used with coined words — emailear, to email-ense — indicates place of ori gin — estadounidense, of or from the United States, American-erà ­a — place where items are made or sold — zapaterà ­a, shoe store-ero — variety of meanings relating to root word — sombrero, hat (from sombra, shade); vaquero, cowboy (from vaca, cow)-à ©s —indicates place of origin — holandà ©s, Dutch-eza — makes abstract nouns from adjectives — pureza, purity